Map Showing the Eastern Section of Empire of China

HISTORY. The early history of China is wrapped in fable, beginning in 2635 B. c., though it is reasonably certain that the country was densely populated even before that time. It is thought that Fu-hi, who lived about that period, founded the social order of the Chinese. Confucius begins his record of Chinese history with the reign of Yao, in 2357 B. c., and praises him as the founder of civilization and prosperity. The Chow dynasty organized the government in 1122 and reigned by a succession of kings until 255 B. c., a period of about 900 years, during which the fine arts and literature flourished.

Confucius was born in 551 B. C., at a time when the nation was depressed by misrule and civil wars. The Chow dynasty was overthrown by the Tsin or Chin dynasty, in 255 B. c., from which China was named, and its rulers expelled the Tartars, abolished the feudal system, and built the great wall to protect China against invasions. Prince Cheng, one of the Tsin rulers, regarded a national hero of the Chinese, assumed the title of emperor, calling himself Che-Hoang-ti. He beheaded hundreds of scholars who supported feudalism and claimed sovereignty over all the nations of Eastern Asia.

The Han line of rulers reigned from 206 B. C. until 190 A. D. Within this Buddhism was introduced and competitive examinations as a qualification for office became established.

A Chinese Print Showing a Typical Landscape

Genghis Khan and the Mongols overran China in the early part of the 13th century. They established a Mongol dynasty in 1259, but this was displaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368, when Hung-wu became the reigning sovereign. The latter dynasty was succeeded by the Manchu-Tartar dynasty in 1618, and through a line of descent still holds the throne (as of 1908).

The first accounts published in Europe of the Chinese and their industries were from the pen of Marco Polo, who traveled in that country in the 13th century. Queen Elizabeth attempted to establish trade relations through the East India Company in 1596, but commercial intercourse of noteworthy extent did not take place until 1792.

China declared the opium traffic illegal in 1796, but the decree was not enforced until 1837, when the government decided to suppress this traffic and sent commissioners to Canton to confiscate the opium in the possession of merchants. These officials seized the stores of opium and published an edict that vessels engaged in the traffic would be subject to confiscation and the persons who engaged in it were declared punishable by death. This brought on the  Opium War of 1840, which terminated favorable to the British, and they compelled the opening of the five ports at Amoy, Canton, Ningpo, Fuchau, and Shanghai and the payment of an indemnity of $21,000,000. Four years later commercial treaties were made with France and the United States.

A formidable insurrection occurred in southern China in 1850, known as the Tai-ping rebellion, which was finally put down by an army raised at the expense of the merchants at Shanghai. This army was first commanded by an American named Ward and later by Charles George Gordons. In the meantime additional trade privileges were obtained by the European nations, and in 1874 the Chinese became complicated with the Mohammedans in Turkestan, which was followed by internal changes and the widening of Chinese influence in East Turkestan.

China became involved in a war with Japan in 1894, as an outgrowth of rival interests in Korea. The Japanese army and navy promptly invaded Chinese territory and succeeded in winning every combat, both on land and sea.

Through this war China lost the island of Formosa (Taiwan) and was required to pay an indemnity of about $150,000,000. Japan had demanded the cession of the Liaotung peninsula, including Port Arthur, but Russia was unwilling to lose the foothold she had gained, and in conjunction with France and Germany protested until Japan gave up her claim and Russia secured a lease of the harbor of Port Arthur. A large reform party in China sought to bring the country into closer commercial relations with other nations, who demanded an “open door” market, and this led to serious opposition through the organization known as the Boxers or the Righteous Harmony Society.

The Boxers were centered largely in Shantung and through the assistance of several other organizations promoted an agitation against foreign aggression. These revolutionists advocated the extermination of all foreigners, threatened the legations in Peking, and on June 20, 1900, murdered Baron von Ketteler, the German ambassador, on the streets of Peking.  This caused the diplomatic corps and those associated with them to fortify themselves in the British legation, which was besieged for nearly two months. The Boxer Rebellion had begun; it would lead to the military intervention in China of eight great powers including Japan and Britain.

A Scene from Chinese Mythology

To relieve the situation, the allied powers, including the United States, Germany, France, Russia, England, Japan, and Italy, dispatched a large army to China, which was placed ender the general command of Count Waldersee. The allied army captured the Taku forts on June 17, and later took possession of Tientsin and Peking. The royal family of China escaped to the interior and the allied army marched through the forbidden city. Prince Ching and Li Hung Chang were commissioned to conclude a treaty with the powers, and it was submitted and approved by the imperial government in 190

This treaty required China to pay an indemnity for the damage done to the different foreign interests, granted greater trade privileges, provided protection against members of anti-foreign societies, and gave enlarged advantages to invest foreign capital in constructing public utilities and developing the natural resources.

Little is known of the inner life of Chinese royalty, and the chief executive lives a most retired life under the etiquette of the court. The late ruler, Emperor Kwangsu, was born in 1872 and is thought to have reigned from 1901, but was deprived of all real share in government by the dowager empress. Both he and the dowager died in 1908, when Hsuen, Tung, an infant of three years, became emperor under the regency of his father, Prince Chun. Li Hung Chang, often called the Bismarck of China, attained to the highest reputation in modern Chinese statesmanship. He introduced many methods and ideas of western civilization. However, the sentiment “China for the Chinese” has had a permanent growth throughout the empire since the Boxer insurrection.

Roads were usually mere trails or paths, which did not allow any form of vehicle traffic or horses. In these circumstances central government authority was weakened and armed robbery was commonplace.

In many parts of old China, travel between villages was so difficult that the roads were usually deserted.

This picture was taken in 1911 in the far west of China. It was common then for the traveller to meet no one and encounter no sign of human habitation for days.

The few isolated villages were usually fortified.

A Chinese Soldier Assigned to Guard a Foreign Traveler in the early 1900s

Because of the dangers, foreign travelers were usually given an armed government escort.  Guarding the foreign traveler was good policy: it allowed the Chinese government to keep an eye on the intruder, and also kept him safe from the armed highwaymen and bandits that plagued the countryside. Keeping the foreign traveler safe was important; the Chinese government did not want to provoke an international incident, should something happen.

A Chinese Labourer Lifts a Bale of Tea Weighing 420 pounds

In old pre-revolutionary China most people earned their living by farming (usually as sharecroppers) or as unskilled manual labourers. Their lives were especially hard. Their back breaking work earned them very little money.

In this picture, taken around 1911, a labourer is lifting a sack full of cotton weighing many times the man.  Cotton and tea were the main Chinese cash exports.

This dock worker is seen carrying a 420-lb bale of cotton from a ship to the Hangkow Bund. He probably earned less than a dollar and half per week,  low even for 1911 standards. But in some ways he was lucky; most peasants were not able to earn any cash and relied on barter.