Some ten miles north of Peking, in a valley where silence reigns supreme, is situated one of the most remarkable and imposing burial grounds in the world. Here, nestling along the slopes of the inclosing mountains, which form a natural amphitheater, are a series of vast mausoleums where lie buried the emperors of the last Chinese dynasty. This was the celebrated Ming dynasty, which continued from 1366 till 1644, when, after a sanguinary struggle lasting for twenty-seven years, it succumbed to the Manchu Tartars, who, under the title of the Tsin dynasty, have occupied the throne to the present time.

Chinese Imperial Cemetery

It has been very truly remarked of the Chinese that they have probably expended more labor over their public works than any other nation of antiquity; and assuredly when any great national work is undertaken, however rare the occurrence, it is invariably carried out on a scale of unparalleled magnificence. It was, therefore, only fitting that the tombs containing the emperors of their own native dynasty should be constructed on a scale commensurate with the wealth and extent of the empire whose destinies they swayed for nigh 300 years. The valley contains altogether thirty tombs, each of which stands in the center of a wooded inclosure several acres in extent, surrounded by a high wall, with an imposing gateway. The largest and most celebrated is that of Yen-wang, whose body reposes in a lofty building resting on an immense brick mound pierced by a slanting tunnel, whose curious acoustic properties entitle it to be ranked as a “whispering gallery.” In front of the mausoleum is a hall measuring 220 ft. long by over 90 ft. broad, which contains the emperor’s tablet. The roof of this building is supported in the center by thirty-two pillars, composed of single trees 60 ft. high and over 11 ft. in circumference, which are said to have been brought from Corea. The transport of these enormous blocks must have been a work of no ordinary difficulty, more especially in the absence of good roads. According to the description of a missionary who recently witnessed the moving of a somewhat similar object, it would seem that the Chinese followed the practice of the ancient Egyptians, as depicted on their tombs, and in a country where labor is abundant such a method would be natural.

Near Peking, 1871

An inscription near the entrance states that this tomb, among others, was repaired by the Emperor Kienlung, who reigned in the early part of last century; but like every other ancient building in China at the present day, it is fast going to ruin for the want of ordinary care, large trees being permitted to grow out of the very roof itself, although there are several attendants residing in the inclosure; while, doubtless, certain officials are entrusted with the care of this splendid mausoleum, and draw their salaries regularly. But laisser faire is the order of the day everywhere in the neighborhood of Peking, and nothing is ever repaired nowadays by any chance.

A part of the original scheme, which shows the magnificent scale on which the whole thing was planned and executed, was a fine paved road, carried over streams and rivers by marble bridges and extending the whole way from Peking, a distance of ten miles. On approaching the valley where the tombs repose the road passes under three handsome “pailaus,” or gateways, and then through one of the most imposing avenues that was ever constructed. This avenue, which extends for about two-thirds of a mile, is flanked on either side with colossal stone figures at intervals of about 50 yards, representing men and animals in the following order: Six men, apparently warriors and priests, in pairs, standing; four horses, four griffins, four elephants, four camels, and four lions, the first pair in each set standing, the second recumbent. As the Chinese have never achieved any great distinction in the art of sculpture, the representations of animal life are, needless to say, somewhat caricatured. But the conception of the whole was magnificent, and the effect of this long avenue of colossal figures standing in silent grandeur is as impressive as anything that ever emanated from the genius of the Chinese race.—Ill. Naval and Military Magazine.

A view of the Great Wall at Beijing (Peking) as it was in 1906

The Great Wall of China is a 5,500 mile long  series of fortifications across most of Northern China.  It is recognized today as one of the Great Wonders of the world and a Unesco world heritage site.

The great wall was built by the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang in the 5th century B.C. to keep northern barbarians from invading China. Over the centuries the wall was extended and strengthened, with much of its current layout and stone walls being built under the Ming Dynasty. Active construction took place, incredibly, until the 17th century.

The great wall today looks very different than when it was originally built. When the first Great Wall was constructed, the fortifications were mainly of packed earth because masonry had not been extensively developed yet. Succeeding emperors rebuilt and improved the wall over the centuries, adding stone ramparts and towers,  finally giving it the current appearance which is familiar from tourist brochures and documentaries today. However the neatly constructed stone wall with its towers and middle section for pedestrians is not representative of the entire wall: the best constructed and best preserved sections of the wall are near Beijing, since that was the most important area that needed protection. Other sections of the wall were never as well constructed relying instead on packed earth ramparts and some sections have fallen down altogether. In many areas bricks have been scavenged for building materials while in other parts sections of the Great Wall have been destroyed to make room for development including road construction. Therefore the Great Wall is no longer an unbroken series of fortifications.

Here are some pictures of the Great Wall as it was in 1906:

Photograph of the Great Wall and a large tower near Peking

The photograph above is of the Great Wall and one its many towers on the edge of Peking. Note how the massive structure dwarfs the horse cart and driver at its base. The wall must have presented an awesome and frightening sight to any barbarian army from the wilds of Mongolia.

The Hata-man Gate

The picture above is of one of the main gates of the Great Wall. Through this gate passed throngs of people and the assorted merchandise and cattle that the imperial city of Peking needed. Ellen Mary Hayes Peck, western traveler to China in 1906 described what she saw:

The usual throng of dealers and of diverse nationalities are represented, resulting in a great deal of bustle and activity, a great deal of noise and dirt. The crowds around some of the gateways included rows of vehicles and sometimes a group of camels; but the most individual of all conveyances is the Peking cart; indeed, I have never seen any inanimate object that wore so individual an air, and when viewed in large numbers, their appearance is most peculiar. This cart is two-wheeled, with a roof, and with sides and back enclosed. One horse is used. In the front opening sits the driver, some one usually at his side, while behind him, far in the back, may be seen the faces of the occupants peering out. Many of the carts used by the ordinary people have no windows or openings on the side; others have windows covered with a kind of netting which admits some air.

A Tower of the Great Wall

In this picture can be seen one of the many hundreds of towers that served as strong points and bastions of the Great Wall. The towers acted as garrisons and defensive positions for the troops guarding the tower. In this picture, taken in 1906 it appears that some of the masonry has fallen down: even the Wall cannot keep out time.

Useful Links About the Great Wall:

• Great Wall Facts – provides a lot of interesting and less well known information about the Great Wall

• The Great Wall: China Against the World

• Great Wall of China — an interesting site written from a Chinese perspective. It debunks several myths including the fact that the wall is actually not a continuous line, and that the wall was never called the Great Wall of China by contemporary Chinese, but that the term was coined by western travelers and then eventually adopted by Chinese nationalists.

Cycling Across China

In 1891, two intrepid recent university graduates set out to travel across Europe and Asia to Peking on bicycles. After an epic 15,000 mile journey the pair reached the imperial capital of Peking, but first they had to cross the great Gobi desert.  This article documents in photographs the people and sites that they encountered along the way; and depicts a China that has passed into history.

The Gobi ( whose name means “Sandy Desert”) presented a 400 mile obstacle of undulating sand dunes between the two cyclists and the next objective of their amazing trip: the Great Wall of China. Their plan was to cross the desert on bikes and then penetrate into the heart of China by crossing through the Great Wall of China.

The pictures that follow document their amazing journey. Click on the pictures for more text, taken directly from the explorers’ account of the journey.

Bicycle Tracks in the Sand of the Gobi Desert

Surveying an unfortunate traveler who did not survive the desert.

Accomodations and places to get supplies were few and far between in the wilds of the Gobi desert. There were a few strategically placed stations where caravans could stop and rest, but these offered only rudimentary hospitality and were infested with vermin such as lice and fleas, which tormented the travelers.

A Station in the Desert, China. Such stations were placed about a day's journey from each other so that travelers could make their way through the desert in stages.

Not all of the Gobi Desert was sandy. Some areas were rocky, and presented obstacles to the bicycles.

The wasteland of the Gobi Desert. The physical exertion, lack of proper food, and mental anxiety of being alone in this vast wilderness began to take its toll on the adventurous pair.

A Road Sign in the Desert

Weak with hunger and exhaustion the duo finally crossed the desert and reached the outer edge of the Great Wall of China. The last phase of their trip would take them to Peking.

To Be Continued.

Bicycling in China

In 1891 two Americans, just graduated from University, set about to reach Peking by riding bicycles from Liverpool, England to Peking. Their goal was to parallel the extraordinary journey of Marco Polo by making an overland trip from Europe through Asia and then Peking. In all, the two men traveled 15,044 miles by bicycle, then the longest bicycle journey ever accomplished. Their achievement is even more extraordinary when one realizes that the modern bicycle with equal-sized wheels  in front and back, and pneumatic tires had only been developed a few years earlier, in 1885 and 1888 respectively. Dereailleur and hand-operated cable pulled brakes had still not been invented.

The Authors' Journey by Bicycle Across Western Asia

The Authors' Journey by Bicycle Through China

They approached China through the dangerous wilds of the Gobi desert, and entered the Chinese empire by passing through its Great Wall and then continuing overland to Peking. The journey took three years to complete and produced over 2,000 incredible photographs, only some of which are reproduced here.

The adventurers never employed guides or interpreters as they traveled through China, which they point out forced them to learn a little of the language and customs of the local people.

The Chinese Border Post on the Border of the Chinese Empire and the Russian Empire

The bicycles were a source of wonder to the Chinese. The Chinese referred to the bicycles by a number of descriptive names such as “foot-moved carriages,” or “a seat-sitting, foot-moving machine.”  The natives in the interior had applied to it various names, among which were “foreign horse”,  “flying-machine”, “self-moving cart”, and others.  A passport with instructions written in Chinese by the Chinese consul in Britain gave the Americans entry to the Chinese Empire.

The Chinese Military Commander of the Border Post

The Authors Riding their Bicycles on the Walls of Kuludja, the first Chinese town they encountered after crossing the border.

Where the authors crossed the border into China, was an area under Russian cultural and economic influence. Many of the locals spoke some Russians. Then the explorers turned toward Peking, and entered the Gobi desert.

A Photograph of the Former Military Commander of the Border Post, and His Family

The two cyclists were forced to spend a considerable time in this desolate border post while they figured out a way to get money and funds for the trip through China. In those days there were no banks capable of transferring money to one another by electronic transfer, and carrying too much money would make the travelers a target for brigands:

A Street View of the Chinese Border Where the Cyclists Waited for Funds

And now the money problem was the most perplexing of all. “This alone,” said the Russian consul, “if nothing else, will defeat your plans.” Those Western bankers who advertise to furnish “letters of credit to any part of the world” are, to say the least, rather sweeping in their assertions. At any rate, our own London letter was of no use beyond the Bosporus, except with the Persian imperial banks run by an English syndicate. At the American Bible House at Constantinople we were allowed, as a personal favor, to buy drafts on the various missionaries along the route through Asiatic Turkey. But in central Asia we found that the Russian bankers and merchants would not handle English paper, and we were therefore compelled to send our letter of credit by mail to Moscow. Thither we had recently sent it on leaving Tashkend, with instructions to remit in currency to Irkutsk, Siberia. We now had to telegraph to that point to re-forward over the Kiakhta post-route to Peking. With the cash on hand, and the proceeds of the camera, sold for more than half its weight in silver, four and one third pounds, we thought we had sufficient money to carry us, or, rather, as much as we could carry, to that point; for the weight of the Chinese money necessary for a journey of over three thousand miles was, as the Russian consul thought, one of the greatest of our almost insurmountable obstacles. In the interior of China there is no coin except the chen, or sapeks, an alloy of copper and tin, in the form of a disk, having a hole in the center by which the coins may be strung together. The very recently coined liang, or tael, the Mexican piaster specially minted for the Chinese market, and the other foreign coins, have not yet penetrated from the coast. For six hundred miles over the border, however, we found both the Russian money and language serviceable among the Tatar merchants, while the tenga, or Kashgar silver-piece, was preferred by the natives even beyond the Gobi, being much handier than the larger or smaller bits of silver broken from the yamba bricks. All, however, would have to be weighed in the tinza, or small Chi[pg 157]nese scales we carried with us, and on which were marked the fün, tchan, and liang of the monetary scale. But the value of these terms is reckoned in chen, and changes with almost every district. This necessity for vigilance, together with the frequency of bad silver and

Street Life in a Chinese Border Town

loaded yambas, and the propensity of the Chinese to “knock down” on even the smallest purchase, tends to convert a traveler in China into a veritable Shylock. There being no banks or exchanges in the interior, we were obliged to purchase at Kuldja all the silver we would need for the entire journey of over three thousand miles. “How much would it take?” was the question that our past experience in Asiatic travel now aided us to answer. That our calculations were close is proved by the fact that we reached Peking with silver in our pockets to the value of half a dollar. Our money now constituted the principal part of our luggage, which, with camera and film, weighed just twenty-five pounds apiece. Most of the silver was chopped up into small bits, and placed in the hollow tubing of the machines to conceal it from Chinese inquisitiveness, if not something worse. We are glad to say, however, that no attempt at robbery was ever discovered, although efforts at extortion were frequent, and sometimes, as will appear, of a serious nature.

While they waited, the two men spent the time learning the Chinese language.

The prisoner in the photograph is wearing a wooden weight around his neck. This was a traditional and rather benign (compared to other methods) form of punishment in the Chinese Empire.

The photograph shows the head of a Chinese highway robber exposed in a basket on a pole.

Everywhere the cyclists went, their strange contraptions caused a commotion and drew curious crowds.

Giving a Bicycling Demonstrations

Because of the overwhelming interest of the locals in the bicycles, the authors found it necessary to take some precautions:

On entering a Chinese city we always made it a rule to run rapidly through until we came to an inn, and then lock up our wheels before the crowd could collect. Urumtsi, however, was too large and intricate for such a manœuver. We were obliged to dismount in the principal thoroughfare. The excited throng pressed in upon us. Among them was a Chinaman who could talk a little Russian, and who undertook to direct us to a comfortable inn at the far end of the city. This street parade gathered to the inn yard an overwhelming mob, and announced to the whole community that “the foreign horses” had come. It had been posted, we were told, a month before, that “two people of the new world” were coming through on “strange iron horses,” and every one was requested not to molest them. By this, public curiosity was raised to the highest pitch. When we returned from supper at a [pg 169]neighboring restaurant, we were treated to a novel scene. The doors and windows of our apartments had been blocked with boxes, bales of cotton, and huge cart-wheels to keep out the irrepressible throng. Our host was agitated to tears; he came out wringing his hands, and urging upon us that any attempt on our part to enter would cause a rush that would break his house down. We listened to his entreaties on the condition that we should be allowed to mount to the roof with a ladder, to get away from the annoying curiosity of the crowd. There we sat through the evening twilight, while the crowd below, somewhat balked, but not discouraged, stood taking in every move. Nightfall and a drizzling rain came at last to our relief.

The next morning a squad of soldiers was despatched to raise the siege, and at the same time presents began to arrive from the various officials, from the Tsongtu, or viceroy, down to the superintendent of the local prisons. The matter of how much to accept of a Chinese present, and how much to pay for it, in the way of a tip to the bearer, is one of the finest points of that finest of fine arts, Chinese etiquette; and yet in the midst of such an abundance and variety we were hopelessly at sea. Fruits and teas were brought, together with meats and chickens, and even a live sheep. Our Chinese visiting-cards—with the Chinese the great insignia of rank—were now returned for those sent with the presents, and the hour appointed for the exhibition of our bicycles as requested.

A Chinese Bank

A Chinese Woman, Western China

A Stylish Cart of a High Chinese Official

A Chinese Traveling Pedlar on Foot

A Town in Western China

The Authors Receiving a Lesson in Chinese

The authors were met with great courtesy by the local officials and dignitaries, who often paid visits to their hotels and reequested return visits to their homes. However communicating with the locals difficult because their Chinese was still very poor. The authors describe how they communicated:

our Chinese was as yet painfully defective. Russian had served us in good stead, though not always directly. In a conversation with the Tootai of Schicho, for instance, our Russian had to be translated into Turki and thence interpreted in Chinese. The more intelligent of these conversations were about our own and other countries of the world, especially England and Russia, who, it was rumored, had gone to war on the Afghanistan border. But the most of them generally consisted of a series of trivial interrogations beginning usually with: “How old are you?”

The communications with the locals often led to misunderstandings due to cultural differences and assumptions. For example:

Owing to our beards, which were now full grown, and which had gained for us the frequent title of yeh renn, or wild men, the guesses were far above the mark. One was even as high as sixty years, for the reason, as was stated, that no one could raise such a beard before that age. We were frequently surprised at their persistence in calling us brothers when there was no apparent reason for it, and were finally told that we must be “because we were both named Mister on our passports.”

Despite the hardships of the road, the two intrepid cyclists were moving ever southward and nearing the borders of the dreaded Gobi Desert, which stood between them and their final destination.

NEXT: Cycling Across the Gobi Desert

Who Invented the Fortune Cookie?

It is impossible to go to a Chinese restaurant in North America without being offered a fortune cookie at the end of the meal.  These fortune cookies have become almost synonymous with Chinese restaurants – but according to The Book of General Ignorance, there is nothing traditionally Chinese about these cookies – in fact they were first developed by a Japanese restaurant owner in the United States.

According to the authors,  the inventor of the Fortune Cookie was Makato Hagiwara, who started the tradition in San Francisico. Soon the restaurants of China Town copied the idea and made it their own.  So much so that no one today associated fortune cookies with Japanese cuisine.

In Wikipedia it is claimed, however, that the fortune cookie might have a Chinese origin after all. According to the Wikipedia article, fortune cookies were first used in China during the Mongol occupation, by revolutionaries sending secret messages to their fellow conspirators by hiding little hand written notes in cookies.

Map Showing the Eastern Section of Empire of China

HISTORY. The early history of China is wrapped in fable, beginning in 2635 B. c., though it is reasonably certain that the country was densely populated even before that time. It is thought that Fu-hi, who lived about that period, founded the social order of the Chinese. Confucius begins his record of Chinese history with the reign of Yao, in 2357 B. c., and praises him as the founder of civilization and prosperity. The Chow dynasty organized the government in 1122 and reigned by a succession of kings until 255 B. c., a period of about 900 years, during which the fine arts and literature flourished.

Confucius was born in 551 B. C., at a time when the nation was depressed by misrule and civil wars. The Chow dynasty was overthrown by the Tsin or Chin dynasty, in 255 B. c., from which China was named, and its rulers expelled the Tartars, abolished the feudal system, and built the great wall to protect China against invasions. Prince Cheng, one of the Tsin rulers, regarded a national hero of the Chinese, assumed the title of emperor, calling himself Che-Hoang-ti. He beheaded hundreds of scholars who supported feudalism and claimed sovereignty over all the nations of Eastern Asia.

The Han line of rulers reigned from 206 B. C. until 190 A. D. Within this Buddhism was introduced and competitive examinations as a qualification for office became established.

A Chinese Print Showing a Typical Landscape

Genghis Khan and the Mongols overran China in the early part of the 13th century. They established a Mongol dynasty in 1259, but this was displaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368, when Hung-wu became the reigning sovereign. The latter dynasty was succeeded by the Manchu-Tartar dynasty in 1618, and through a line of descent still holds the throne (as of 1908).

The first accounts published in Europe of the Chinese and their industries were from the pen of Marco Polo, who traveled in that country in the 13th century. Queen Elizabeth attempted to establish trade relations through the East India Company in 1596, but commercial intercourse of noteworthy extent did not take place until 1792.

China declared the opium traffic illegal in 1796, but the decree was not enforced until 1837, when the government decided to suppress this traffic and sent commissioners to Canton to confiscate the opium in the possession of merchants. These officials seized the stores of opium and published an edict that vessels engaged in the traffic would be subject to confiscation and the persons who engaged in it were declared punishable by death. This brought on the  Opium War of 1840, which terminated favorable to the British, and they compelled the opening of the five ports at Amoy, Canton, Ningpo, Fuchau, and Shanghai and the payment of an indemnity of $21,000,000. Four years later commercial treaties were made with France and the United States.

A formidable insurrection occurred in southern China in 1850, known as the Tai-ping rebellion, which was finally put down by an army raised at the expense of the merchants at Shanghai. This army was first commanded by an American named Ward and later by Charles George Gordons. In the meantime additional trade privileges were obtained by the European nations, and in 1874 the Chinese became complicated with the Mohammedans in Turkestan, which was followed by internal changes and the widening of Chinese influence in East Turkestan.

China became involved in a war with Japan in 1894, as an outgrowth of rival interests in Korea. The Japanese army and navy promptly invaded Chinese territory and succeeded in winning every combat, both on land and sea.

Through this war China lost the island of Formosa (Taiwan) and was required to pay an indemnity of about $150,000,000. Japan had demanded the cession of the Liaotung peninsula, including Port Arthur, but Russia was unwilling to lose the foothold she had gained, and in conjunction with France and Germany protested until Japan gave up her claim and Russia secured a lease of the harbor of Port Arthur. A large reform party in China sought to bring the country into closer commercial relations with other nations, who demanded an “open door” market, and this led to serious opposition through the organization known as the Boxers or the Righteous Harmony Society.

The Boxers were centered largely in Shantung and through the assistance of several other organizations promoted an agitation against foreign aggression. These revolutionists advocated the extermination of all foreigners, threatened the legations in Peking, and on June 20, 1900, murdered Baron von Ketteler, the German ambassador, on the streets of Peking.  This caused the diplomatic corps and those associated with them to fortify themselves in the British legation, which was besieged for nearly two months. The Boxer Rebellion had begun; it would lead to the military intervention in China of eight great powers including Japan and Britain.

A Scene from Chinese Mythology

To relieve the situation, the allied powers, including the United States, Germany, France, Russia, England, Japan, and Italy, dispatched a large army to China, which was placed ender the general command of Count Waldersee. The allied army captured the Taku forts on June 17, and later took possession of Tientsin and Peking. The royal family of China escaped to the interior and the allied army marched through the forbidden city. Prince Ching and Li Hung Chang were commissioned to conclude a treaty with the powers, and it was submitted and approved by the imperial government in 190

This treaty required China to pay an indemnity for the damage done to the different foreign interests, granted greater trade privileges, provided protection against members of anti-foreign societies, and gave enlarged advantages to invest foreign capital in constructing public utilities and developing the natural resources.

Little is known of the inner life of Chinese royalty, and the chief executive lives a most retired life under the etiquette of the court. The late ruler, Emperor Kwangsu, was born in 1872 and is thought to have reigned from 1901, but was deprived of all real share in government by the dowager empress. Both he and the dowager died in 1908, when Hsuen, Tung, an infant of three years, became emperor under the regency of his father, Prince Chun. Li Hung Chang, often called the Bismarck of China, attained to the highest reputation in modern Chinese statesmanship. He introduced many methods and ideas of western civilization. However, the sentiment “China for the Chinese” has had a permanent growth throughout the empire since the Boxer insurrection.

Roads were usually mere trails or paths, which did not allow any form of vehicle traffic or horses. In these circumstances central government authority was weakened and armed robbery was commonplace.

In many parts of old China, travel between villages was so difficult that the roads were usually deserted.

This picture was taken in 1911 in the far west of China. It was common then for the traveller to meet no one and encounter no sign of human habitation for days.

The few isolated villages were usually fortified.

A Chinese Soldier Assigned to Guard a Foreign Traveler in the early 1900s

Because of the dangers, foreign travelers were usually given an armed government escort.  Guarding the foreign traveler was good policy: it allowed the Chinese government to keep an eye on the intruder, and also kept him safe from the armed highwaymen and bandits that plagued the countryside. Keeping the foreign traveler safe was important; the Chinese government did not want to provoke an international incident, should something happen.

Unfortunately, many of discoveries were lost or failed to be perfected mainly due to China experiencing the equivalent of a dark age when it was overrun and occupied by barbarians from the North.

Considering that the Chinese had developed a hot air balloon toy that was an exact though miniature equivalent of the first manned balloon flown in France centuries later,  one can only wonder what the world would have been like if ancient Chinese civilization had been allowed to develop and take advantage of its initial head start.

Below is a partial list of Chinese “firsts” – technologies and devices which were actually invented or discovered in ancient China:

• the Abacus – the abacus was an ancient counting and addition/subtraction device – the forerunner of the modern calculator.
• the calendar
• the wheel barrow
• paper
• kites – in ancient China kites were used both as a toy and for more military purposes. Large kites were used to hoist human observers aloft to observe the enemy positions. Similar kites were used by European armies at the beginning of World War 1.
• relief maps
• halter (for horses and beasts of burden)
• bells
• fireworks
• an early form of the compass
• self igniting matches
• hot air balloons
• parachutes
• the fishing reel
• negative numbers – an amazing mathematical achievement allowing for complex mathematics and physics
• the umbrella
• gunpowder
• mechanical clocks
• flushing toilets
• magic mirrors
• brackets — which allowed for more complex engineering and construction
• silk
• porcelain (hence china)
• an early version of the printing press
• the suspension bridge

As well as many more ….

A Chinese Labourer Lifts a Bale of Tea Weighing 420 pounds

In old pre-revolutionary China most people earned their living by farming (usually as sharecroppers) or as unskilled manual labourers. Their lives were especially hard. Their back breaking work earned them very little money.

In this picture, taken around 1911, a labourer is lifting a sack full of cotton weighing many times the man.  Cotton and tea were the main Chinese cash exports.

This dock worker is seen carrying a 420-lb bale of cotton from a ship to the Hangkow Bund. He probably earned less than a dollar and half per week,  low even for 1911 standards. But in some ways he was lucky; most peasants were not able to earn any cash and relied on barter.